Disclaimer!! This is not meant to be a comprehensive essay about
the events in the Sudan and Egypt in the mid- to late 19th century. Such
an account would fill up an entire book, and, indeed, there are many books
already written on the subject. This essay is only meant to give the reader
a basic understanding of the events mentioned in the Amelia Peabody mysteries.
--Margie Knauff
In Elizabeth Peters' first Amelia Peabody mystery, Crocodile on the Sandbank, she mentions at one point the plight of "Gallant Gordon" as he faced the "Mad Mahdi." I began to wonder what on earth she was talking about. So began the quest for more details about these events.
Charles George "Chinese" Gordon was, according to all biographers,
an extremely talented military leader and strategist, with a knack for pulling
men together and forming them into a fearsome fighting force. The "Chinese"
in his name comes from his exploits in China from 1860 to 1864, when Britain
became involved in a Chinese civil war. Gordon commanded the "Ever
Victorious Army," ex-regular army soldiers from France, Britain and
America, from 1863 to 1864. Under his command it truly was ever victorious,
and was of great use to the Emperor in quashing the rebellion. Upon Gordon's
resignation of his command in 1864, the Emperor promoted him to the rank
of Ti Tu (similar in rank to a field marshal) in the Imperial Army, even
though he was only a captain in the British Army.
Prior to his exploits in China, Gordon (as a lieutenant) had served in the
Crimea, where he participated in the assaults on Sebastopol, earning him
the Crimea War medal and also a Turkish war medal and entrance into the
French Legion of Honor -- high rewards for one who had not yet reached the
rank of captain.
Gordon was extremely religious, believing in a strict interpretation of
the Bible, which he read for pleasure and for guidance at least one hour
a day. There is some disagreement on his alcohol consumption - some accounts
claim he only drank rarely, others have him consuming huge amounts of brandy.
He did not like the formal socializing and wining and dining that could
be involved in army life. He had a strict sense of duty, and he did not
like to waste his time. If he did not feel that he was being productive,
he would resign or ask for a transfer.
Mohammed Ahmed was born the son of a carpenter. He was raised to follow his uncle's profession of shipwright. A studious and religious youth, at 16 he became a dervish and a student of the mystic Sufi doctrine. Dervishes have been equated to the Christian monastic orders, but without the sexual taboos. He later began wandering the Sudan as a holy man. He served as doctor and scribe to the poor, in return for which they filled his begging bowl with food. His travels around the Sudan gave him the chance to see firsthand the conditions of the people, and inspired him to begin preaching against the "Turk" (foreigners).
Sudan in the mid 19th century was in a very confused state. In the 1820s, Egypt, with the help of the British, invaded and unified northern Sudan (called Cush) and made it a subject state of Egypt, then part of the Ottoman empire. The government in Egypt was headed by an Armenian Khedive appointed by the Ottomans. The Khedive employed a number of foreigners (Europeans, Americans, and Turks) in his government and army. In the mid-19th century, the British became more officially involved in the Egyptian conquest of Sudan. They saw the strategic importance in terms of trade routes to India via the newly opened Suez Canal, and they wanted to limit the influence of the French in Africa. The slave trade was booming in the Sudan. Slavery was an accepted, if unpleasant, fact of life there, but it greatly offended the sensibilities of the foreign, European governments who took an interest in the region. Throughout the Islamic world there had been talk of the coming of a new Prophet, or Mahdi. He would be known to the people because he would have flashing eyes, be devout, and come from the east.
Gordon first came to the Sudan in 1874, where he served as governor of
Equatoria, a region in southern Sudan. He had resigned from the British
army in 1873 in order to take up this post. His task was to improve the
administration of the government and do what he could to stamp out the slave
trade. He had accomplished these tasks by 1876, and returned to resign.
The Khedive wished him to stay, but Gordon felt that his job was done. He
returned to Britain, now a field marshal in the Turkish army, in time for
Christmas, 1874, and proceeded to make himself unpopular with some politicians
with his outspoken comments on foreign policy, which were repeated and advocated
by the newspaper, The Times.
Gordon returned to the Sudan in 1877 as governor of the entire region, working
again for the Turkish government. The influence of the British government
on the Egyptian government increased during this time, so that by 1880,
the Khedive in Egypt was nearly a puppet of the authorities in Britain.
Gordon worked from 1877 to 1880 to bring the Sudan under control; there
had been uprisings within the region, and trouble with Ethiopia. However,
Gordon was not as successful in this endeavor as he had been as governor
of Equatoria. The British officials he had offended with his earlier comments
snubbed him or refused to support his actions. Consequently, the Khedive
was unable to assist him. Gordon resigned in 1880, and began a wandering
period, from Switzerland to Bombay, back to China, and at last returning
to Britain, having managed (inadvertently) to make the British government
look very bad almost every step of the way. He increased his unpopularity
with the British government by criticizing their policy in Ireland, currently
a subject state of Britain. In 1882 he returned to active duty, this time
in South Africa, where he was called upon to settle problems between the
British government and the Basutos. The government agreed with him, but
bungled his attempt to solve the problem by not following his advice. He
returned to Britain in disgust in November 1882.
During this time, Mohammed Ahmed had been building his following and preaching
his own message. One part of his doctrine was a rejection of the foreigner,
the other part was geared towards improving one's self. The foreigner, or
Turk, was one who did not keep the Koran, drank wine, and oppressed other
Muslims. This group of people who were not proper Muslims included most
of the government of Egypt and Sudan. Ahmed advocated that people should
avoid the vices of envy, pride, and neglect of the five daily prayers. They
should aspire to the six virtues of humility, meekness of spirit, endurance,
eating and drinking only a little, and visiting the tombs of holy men. This
doctrine was very persuasive, and Mohammed Ahmed rapidly found that he had
many adherents. Although many recognized him as the Mahdi, he did not proclaim
himself the Mahdi until 1881. He was devout, had flashing eyes, and possessed
other marks of the Mahdi: a V-shaped aperture between his front two teeth,
a birthmark on his right cheek, his ancestry, and his origin from the east.
These were all seen as favorable signs that he was the true Mahdi.
In 1881, Ahmed, now the Mahdi, began sending out letters proclaiming his
beliefs and urging others to follow his path. The Egyptian government, sensing
trouble but not yet alarmed, sent officials to meet with the Mahdi to dissuade
him of his beliefs. The mission was a failure, and the Mahdi gained in popularity
among the common people of the Sudan. In August, 1881, the government sent
a military expedition against the Mahdi. The expedition was ambushed by
the Mahdist forces and defeated. Men armed only with clubs, rocks and spears
had defeated an armed expedition. This only confirmed peoples' opinions
that Ahmed truly was the Mahdi. After this success, the Mahdi retreated
to Mt. Jebel Gedir in Kordofan in order to consolidate his forces. Although
he and his followers passed many Egyptian garrisons during this flight,
he was not attacked. In December 1881, another expedition sent against the
Mahdi was not only ambushed, but defeated and nearly annihilated.
The government in Egypt was now alarmed, and sent another expedition after
the Mahdi to suppress him. This, too, was defeated. Shortly afterwards,
the Mahdi declared a holy war against the Turk, and went on the offensive,
attacking and besieging government garrisons in Kordofan. His forces seemed
unstoppable.
Egypt itself was not able to intervene because of its internal problems
due to a struggle for power, in addition to a widespread rebellion of its
army. Fifteen members of the European community in Alexandria were killed,
causing a panic among the Europeans. The Egyptians began to fortify Alexandria,
placing guns facing outward toward the harbor. The British bombarded the
city and occupied it in July 1882. By September, the British had defeated
the head of the rebellious army forces, squashing the revolt in the process.
The British were now in control of Egypt, although the illusion that Egypt
was running the show was maintained.
In 1883 the government organized an army to recapture the lost territory
in the Sudan and suppress the Mahdist forces. The force was led by William
Hicks, a former colonel in the British army, now a Pasha in the Turkish
army. Hicks led a force of around 10,000 men, and it took them nearly a
year to reach El Obeid in Kordofan, where the Mahdist forces were concentrated.
It was estimated that the Mahdi had forces totaling nearly 100,000 men.
The Mahdist forces caught the Egyptian army by surprise and massacred them.
Even more people than before began to believe that Ahmed was the Mahdi,
and flocked to his cause. In December 1883 another expedition was sent against
the Mahdi and was also soundly defeated. In early 1884 another force of
around 3,000 men was sent out against a portion of the Mahdist forces. This
expedition consisted of British troops, somewhat better disciplined and
trained. They managed to defeat a force of 6,000 under the control of a
subordinate of the Mahdi, but they did not make any inroads into reconquering
the Sudan.
The story of the Mahdist rebellion, as it was called, was reported in the
British press, and the British people called for someone to take control
of the Sudan back from the Mahdi, or at least ensure the safety of those
who opposed him. As early as November 1882, there were calls for Gordon
to be sent to Khartoum. The British government, never a big fan of Gordon's,
dithered and dallied until January 1884, when they could no longer tolerate
the pressure from the press, the people, and even Queen Victoria herself.
Gordon's new mission was simply to evacuate Khartoum, not to hold it against
the Mahdi. At some point after he arrived in Egypt, Gordon changed his mind,
and decided that Khartoum could be held, if only the government would send
supporting troops. Gordon did evacuate from Khartoum the wives, children,
and men who would not be pressed into defense of the city.
The Mahdi and Gordon held mutual admiration for each other's strategic abilities.
Gordon tried to convince the Mahdi to become a Christian, or at least a
less rebellious Muslim; the Mahdi tried to convince Gordon to become a Muslim
and join his army. The Mahdi had around 8,000 men, and Gordon was safely
ensconced in Khartoum, setting up earthworks, mines and the like to protect
the city, along with a fleet of armored steam boats patrolling the Nile.
A long waiting game began. The Mahdi began encircling Khartoum, and Gordon
waited for relief forces.
Unfortunately for Gordon, his unpopularity with the British government and
military officials, both in Egypt and Great Britain itself, ensured his
failure. While the press reported on his exploits, the government dithered
and dallied again, declining to send relief until July 1884, when Lord Hartington,
the Minister of War for Great Britain, declared that he would resign if
relief were not sent to Gordon. Money was found for the relief force, but
it did not reach Egypt and begin its long trek to Khartoum until September
1884. Gordon sent four of his steamers down the Nile to meet the expedition
at El-Metemmah, a city just below the 6th cataract of the Nile.
In mid-November the Mahdi ordered an attack on the steamers, one of Gordon's
most valuable assets in terms of firepower, and also one of his few means
of escape downriver, if things turned from bad to worse. Gordon had only
two steamers at that point, the others having been sent downriver earlier.
Gordon lost one of his remaining steamers, and the level of the Nile kept
dropping as the dry season continued. Soon the other steamer would not be
able to navigate, and the Mahdist forces would be able to cross the Nile
on foot, completely encircling Khartoum.
On December 14, Gordon sent his last steamer downstream, containing messages
from Gordon and others with whom he was on friendly terms. The Mahdi had
agreed to let the steamer through, but it was to be the last. Khartoum had
become encircled and was cut off. The seige began in earnest, and daily
rations of food became smaller and smaller. A bridge to the neighboring
town of Omdurman was destroyed on January 5, 1885.
The relief forces reached El-Metemmah on January 14 to find the four steamers
Gordon sent down the river over 100 days before, patiently waiting for them.
For some reason, the troops did not immediately embark, but waited until
January 23 before heading upriver. The Nile was now shallow enough near
Khartoum to cross on foot, enabling the Mahdist forces to surround all sides
of the city simultaneously. The Mahdi issued orders to prepare for an attack
on January 26.
The drop in the level of the river left one portion of the city unprotected
by either wall or ditch. It was through this breach that the Mahdist forces
poured on the morning of January 26. The city was taken easily and Gordon
was killed. Two days later, on January 28, the relief forces arrived to
find the city in the hands of the Mahdi.
The Mahdi died on June 28, 1885, reportedly from natural causes. He was
succeeded by Abdullah Ibn Mohammed, the first Khalifa. The Mahdists, under
the control of the Khalifa, retained control of Sudan until the British
army, under the control of General Kitchener, reconquered the terrritory
in 1898. Britain would probably have rather left the Sudan alone, but was
so embarrassed over the loss of Gordon and so many other men that they felt
compelled to reconquer it.
The death of Gordon caused a great outcry, not only among the British, but
also among the rulers of other countries for which he had served and those
who had tried to entice him into their service. The British government released
a Blue Book proving that no one was to blame. The Egyptian government released
a Red Book proving that the British were to blame. Gladstone, the British
Prime Minister, was vilified, and forced to resign.
Today, if you travel to Southampton where Gordon resided for many years
prior to and in between his adventures, you will find a memorial to Charles
George "Chinese" Gordon in Queen's Park. On the house where Gordon
used to live, 5 Rockstone Place, there is a historical marker. At Gravesend,
where Gordon was stationed after returning from China, there is a statue
in Fort Gardens, a Gordon School and a Gordon Mission Church. A statue of
Gordon was first erected in Trafalgar Square, in London, but now stands
on the Thames Embankment. There is a Gordon Boys School in Surrey that has
a statue of Gordon seated atop a camel, which stood in front of the palace
in Khartoum prior to Sudanese independence in 1956. From 1898 to 1956 Sudan
was ruled either by Britain, Egypt, or by both countries together, in a
"condominium" as it was called.
I apologize in this essay if there has been an overemphasis on Gordon, and
not enough on the Mahdi. The Mahdi is a very important and influential person
in Sudanese history; one who unified northern Sudan under Islam, and one
who, in this modern day, is seen as a symbol against foreign oppression
and for national liberation. It is difficult, however, to find English language
sources on the Mahdi.
Farwell, Brian. Prisoners of the Mahdi. New York: W. W. Norton
& Co., 1967, reprinted 1989 as a Norton Paperback, 1989.
MacGregor-Hastie, Roy. Never to Be Taken Alive: A Biography of General
Gordon. New York: St. Martins Press, 1985.
Sharkey, Heather J. Recent books: The Life and Career of the Mahdi (book
review of al-Imam al Mahdi: Muhamed Ahmad b. 'Abd Allah (1884-1885)).
http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/sa/4Mahdi.html
"Sudan: General." World Travel Guide. http://www.wtgonline.com:8080/country/ad/gen.htm
Sudan. Global Online Travel. http://www.got.com/worldinf/africa/sudan.html
There are also a number of biographies of Gordon (which I did not read),
all entitled Gordon of Khartoum, one of which is probably available
at your local library.